Syllable‐final /s/ as an index of language, gender, and ethnicity in a contact variety of Mexican Spanish

This study of syllable-final /s/ reduction in a 55-speaker corpus Spanish Juchitán, México, contact variety, uses both language and social processes to explain its results. Contact with the indigenous Isthmus Zapotec leads decreased rates retention, creating locally salient n+1-order index between “Zapotecness” that influences indexical field for reduction. identity is associated tradition femininity. Therefore, this new field, comes directly dominance indirectly femininity tradition. feminine elderly speakers reduce more frequently than “less feminine” young speakers, even though opposite pattern usually found other varieties. The results show, therefore, can influence typically linked socially meaningful variation thereby cause unexpected patterns emerge. Este estudio explica la elisión de implosiva, en un 55 hablantes español términos del contacto lingüístico y procesos sociales. Por lado, el entre lengua indígena, zapoteco Istmo, disminuye tasa retención /s/, lo cual produce índice orden n+1 indexicalidad “zapotequidad” que influye campo implosiva. Ya identidad zapoteca se asocia con tradicional femenino, indexical, implosiva pasa ser directo indirecto feminidad tradición. tanto, las femeninas edad avanzada eliden más frecuencia los “menos femeninos” jóvenes, aunque, otros contextos hispanohablantes, suele darse patrón contrario. Los resultados muestran, por ende, puede influir una variante socialmente significativa así llevar nuevos patrones inesperados variación. Variationist sociolinguistics has consistently shown robust links factors competing realizations particular sociolinguistic variants. Although these have been researched wide variety contexts, disproportionate share studies performed monolingual contexts. On hand, bilingual or multilingual contexts often studied by sociolinguists non-sociolinguists, who sometimes similar vastly different ways. In particular, contact, some researchers mostly terms incomplete second acquisition as linguistic transfer, implicitly linking competence. Sociolinguists, on tend prefer explanations very variation. For instance, although Rothman Iverson (2007), Zimmermann (2004), Holmquist (2012), Upadhyay (2009) work variation, former two take an Second Language Acquisition approach, whereas latter authors purely approach. However, interpretations phenomena merely from L1 L2 may underestimate ignore important effects structure ideology communities run risk downplaying undeniable role competence explaining occur communities. Following like Otheguy et al. (2007) Waltermire (2008), context into account, I argue, Mexico, meaning Juchitán small Mexican city largely population traditionally spoke Zapotec, Oto-Manguean approximately 80,000 speakers. Syllable-final variable vary many carries great deal throughout Spanish-speaking world but, also be Zapotec. Specifically, will show seemingly Spanish. argue fact taken up n+1-order, indirect (Ochs, 1992; Silverstein, 2003) larger ideological construct affects (Eckert, 2008) reduction, leading differences factors. then use interpretation otherwise relationship gender Juchitán. making argument, rely heavily Eckert's concept 2008), while borrowing Silverstein's framework orders (Silverstein, Och's assertion gendered arises through indexicality 1992). While Butler's understanding performative construction emerges “stylized repetition acts,” including those related gesture, language, clothing, are understood expressing “presupposed” (Butler, 2020). tends toward formation open syllables, tendency contradicted frequent occurrence dental (or, central/northern Spain, alveolar) fricative [s] at end syllables. Varieties problem main First, word-internally before vowels, realized beginning next syllable. Second, positions reduced, it either aspirated (realized voiceless glottal fricative) completely deleted. provided example below paragraph retained (dental) reduced variants word-final 32-year-old female speaker my sample, English translation right. Reduced indicated [], variant transcribed [s]. occurs all dialects yet. greatly Furthermore, there large significant within each dialect which members groups /s/. where categorical retention standard norm, quite low, and, central varieties, almost (but not quite) categorically (Butragueño, 2014; Lewis & Boomershine, 2015; Walker al., 2014). Because less Mexico most world, remains understudied country. should noted caveat varieties much higher Lipski, 2007; Such spoken Northern regions historically populations African origin, coastal regions, commonalities /s/-reducing Caribbean dialects. To determine region was located in, made heavy Butragueño's (2014) discussion reducing references studies, such Moreno Alba (1994) Lope Blanch (1990–2000). It turns out retaining region, geographically close Pacific Coast regions. As such, sample were but would expected just over 15% People juchitecos, particularly mobile, having lived parts overall likely women, older people, upper- middle-class common among young, working-class, lower-class, male (see, literature review Holmquist, 2011; Lynch, 2009). These repeatedly Mexico. class-based appear universal age- gender-based ones, since no age one Miami (Lynch, 2009) exact pattern. explained being historical languages languages, especially Nahuatl (Lipski, 1994, 2007). because substrate (Isthmus Zapotec) influence, contact. Yet, unlike local promote rather retention. people Americas, markedly across levels system, morphology phonetics lexicon. our purposes, makes sense focus only three differences. morphological level, does mark plurals any part speech, generally marks nouns, adjectives, determiners, pronouns (Pickett 1998). we expect dominant plural often. contrast, native used (Almeida San Juan, 1998; Brown Torres Cacoullos, 2002; phonological sibilant fricatives /x/ (corresponding alveolar palatoalveolar fricatives) consonants syllable-initial position stop stark contrast Spanish's rules prohibiting consonant same might Zapotec-dominant infrequently consonants. Lastly importantly, however, stronger production Syllables exclusively begin (or cluster) vowel. attested nasals loan words Spanish, speak of, so Upon Juchitán's founding, initially clear majority monolingually overwhelming until mid-20th century (Saynes-Vázquez, 2002). modern times, disappearing documented shift decreasing number parents teaching their children (Ausburger, 2004; Saynes-Vázquez, mention loss provide visibility precarious state describe relative later associations attributes, expressiveness, tradition, Since debate regarding discourses terminology decline, avoid using controversial “endangered,” “extinct,” “dying” refer disappearance A comprehensive issue instead Hill (2002) Moore (2010). Currently, around thirds population, remaining third varying, high, proficiency. Some others balanced bilinguals (who still signs diglossia speech), fluently Among group, ranges high low. They interact influenced certain phrases active vocabulary passive vocabulary. Many qualified level percentage, saying they 50% 20% example, learning attempt revive it. know make little effort learn more. younger economically mobile affluent strata society smaller repertoire includes lexical items. observation fits community shifting could eventually lead complete (Augsburger, here corresponding notion “Zapotecness.” language's reinforces positively valued attributes along language. replacing due, part, association economic success, modernity, relatively privileged, non-indigenous rest positive beauty, aspects isolated accordingly, met expressed strong pride (Zapotec) distinctiveness Mexicans. isolation begun change recent decades. Nowadays, pursued educational and/or job opportunities outside city, service sector jobs, increasingly traditional informal jobs. aforementioned transformations economy Like places changes occurred past decades, ambivalent about changes, seeing negative them, opinions person person. That said, fair say prestigious coexists “Mexicanness” affiliate extent both, affiliating other. By “Mexicanness,” do necessarily identities. Rather, constructs best existing continuum poles group together sets understand another. following paragraphs, hope help previous research own ethnographic observations, Within “Zapotecness,” strongly practices, jobs celebrations. Social life organized parties component (Barbosa, 2016; Michel, 2006). Regarding parties, invited men women must “contribution” form money, alcohol, men. According participants, unmarried muxes, so-called gender, alcohol. longer past, worked butchers, fisherman, firework makers, farmers, products sell markets during Women housework manage family finances. Muxes create clothing closely women. Muxe members, youngest daughter families muxe, care old (Borruso, 2001; Laaksonen, Stephen, roles, constituted acts marking masculinity, femininity, muxeidad (muxeity), complementary words, every contributed identities, connecting web interconnected reciprocity. reciprocity, contributing success whole emergence genders, way. advent globalization rise service-sector changed, shrinking (Céspedes Vargas, 2015). anecdotally seems caused disappeared rapidly disappearing. participants commented that, correspondingly, ties reciprocity identities weakened. participation newer formal-economy continue exist play vital economy. roles muxes venders interviewed. nowadays muxe female, masculine. “femininity” “being Zapotec” explore greater detail coming paragraphs. “muxes” refuse engage five eschew label themselves “gay men,” sexual/gender itself (Laaksonen, 2016). “gay” underscored gay-identified participants’ profiles off-hand comments interviews. Namely, none them better denounced cultural muxes. “muxe gunaa,” identify dress similarly gunaa” encounter discrimination when look sectors, forced choose presenting woman keeping well-paying gunaa restrict prospects sex work, career paths seen unimaginable. participant, began, did finish, degree engineering, explained, she went bars her (exclusively male) schoolmates, talk behind backs, commenting paying sex. commenters, harder imagine fellow engineering student client entourage workers. addition education, identity,” benignly crime, sexism, prejudicial views violent notably drug-related crimes, murders, domestic violence, rape, hate crimes against Ybáñez Zepeda Yanes Pérez, 2013). committed residents claim ideologies justifying come colonialism crime prevalent Along lines, 25-year-old informant mine sexist homophobic violence “exists everywhere, repeat it,”1 casting general Mexican, worldwide, problem, juchiteco problem. Other informants observed anti-muxe anti-woman attitudes sections city. if amount sections, described gang-related occurring gender-related violence. despite prevalence readily correspondingly become with, constructed as, perform masculinity. men's quicker women's gunaa, kept expectations role, prominent symbols feminine, gender-neutral Most notably, market explicitly Zapotec-speaking sphere, 60-year-old explains, “To market, you see selling”2 “The what space happen, right? In…the sphere…and right?”3. Another 45-year-old participant pointed “functions Zapotec”4 “if male, called muxe.”5 comments, more, point link people's minds (i.e., women), speaking performing Zapotecness read seem extend beyond Both markers constitute well age. generations generations. creates people. interviews, heard remarks claimed seventh section traditions practiced, clothes commonly worn, first age, identity, together. One observe Figure 1, screenshot homepage Facebook dedicated informing classes. screenshot, image exemplify wearing dresses, embodying figure probably works sector. figure, dress, unified exemplary representation Given this, ideas condition slightly lower rate already suggests surrounding areas. widespread without gender), suggest mere difference community. Accordingly, data collected, tokens extracted analyzed various collected 10-week period ethnographically informed fieldwork, resulting semi-structured ranging length 35 56 min (average 49 min), supplemented notes. My focused relations, use, relevant instrumental project, allowing me interpret convincingly. determined, ethnographically. modified snowball sampling, fairly representative community, varying respect class background, competence, interviews directed topics ideologies, variationist analysis mentioned falls, scope study. content varied containing epistemic affective stances, normative claims, ideologically charged discourse, personal anecdotes, discussions relationships, daily conversation. therefore rich speech styles encompassed cross-section speakers’ registers interviewed distant closer relationships me, clearly outsider, gay, “muxe” participants. Thus, way oriented non-female affected After transcribed, 150 randomly interview coded factors, specifically word position, status, phonetic context, word-level stress. recorded questionna